LSC S2: STATE FORMATION IN EAST AFRICA

LSC S2: STATE FORMATION IN EAST AFRICA

Introduction

After studying this chapter, you will be able to appreciate the organisation of the centralised and the non-centralised states in East Africa, and how they contribute to governance systems and structure in the modern times. You will appreciate the development of centralized states in a situation where they did not exist, and what contributed to the existence of those states. You will also be able to differentiate between the centralised and non-centralized governance systems in provision of services and welfare to people.

The Africans had their own systems to forge political, social, and economic institutions for proper management of their affairs. In East Africa, societies had different forms of economic, social and political organisation structures. The organisational structures were directly controlled by the leader (king, chief or
elders) through established structures within those societies. Before East Africa was colonised, there were two types of states namely; centralised states (chiefly states) and decentralised states (segmentary/stateless/non-centralised states). Some of the states that existed by then were the Kikuyu, Masai, Buganda, Bunyoro, Ankole, Karagwe, Nyamwezi, Acholi, among others.

CENTRALISED STATES

These were states under recognised rulers. They had organised political authority centred on a chief or a king. They were highly organised and with well-developed political, social and economic institutions. The king or chief promoted law and order, and he was sometimes assisted by lesser or minor chiefs to ensure effective administration. There were several centralised states in East Africa and among those found in the interlacustrine region were Bunyoro, Ankole and Karagwe.

DECENTRALISED STATES

These were states characterised by lack of recognised institutions. They lacked single and accepted political authority. They were mostly divided into several clans. The clan elders were used to maintain law and order in such societies. There were several decentralised states in East Africa, but the out-standing ones were the Acholi, Iteso, Nyamwezi, Masai and the Kikuyu.

Activity 5.1: Organisation of societies in East Africa i In groups
a) StudyFigures5.1 (a)and(b)above and identify the differences between thetwo
b)If Figure 5.1 (a) and (b) represented groups of people, how would you differentiate them?
c)Use your answer to complete the table below;
d)Draw a sketch map of East Africa showing the location of centralised and-centralised states.

Characteristics of centralised and non-centralised states in East Africa

CENTRALISED STATES IN EAST AFRICA
Before the colonisation of East Africa, Uganda had an orderly arrangement of kingdoms (Buganda, Bunyoro, Ankole and Tooro) and communities located in the Lango, Acholi, Madi, West Nile, Bukedi, Bugishu, Busoga, Teso, Karamoja, Sebei and Kigezi regions. Uganda was a heterogeneous area, with a variety of customary practices, social and political structures.

Buganda Kingdom

Buganda was one of the most developed and highly centralised states in the interlacustrine region in mid 19th Century. It covered the area between Lake Kyoga and Lake Victoria to the north and south respectively. To the west, she was bordered by Bunyoro and extended as far as River Nile to the east.

Political Organisation
Buganda kingdom was a highly centralised state under a king known as Kabaka. The central government of Buganda was in the hands of the Kabaka assisted by three important ministers including the Katikkiro (prime minister), Omulamuzi (Chief justice) and Omuwanika (Treasurer). They were appointed by the Kabaka from among most influential clans in Buganda.

For easy administration, the Kabaka also had a council called the Lukiiko, which advised him on important state matters. It was composed of 89 members, i.e. prime minister, chief justice, six Kabaka’s nominees, 60 clan heads, 20 county chiefs and a treasurer. The kabaka also had important women advisors namely Namasole (Queen mother), Lubuga (chief sister) and Nabagereka (chief wife).

The kabaka had absolute powers: he could appoint, promote, demote and dismiss his chiefs. His powers were hereditary and leadership was passed onto his elder
son.

For efficient and effective administration, the kingdom was divided into 20 counties, each under a saza Chief. They were further sub-divided into sub-counties each under a Gombolola sub-county chief. These chiefs were appointed directly by the kabaka. The chief was the political and military leader of the area under his jurisdiction. He carried out the Kabaka’s instructions regarding collection of
revenues, general administration and warfare. Militarily, Buganda had no standing

army. It was the responsibility of every male adult to contribute to the defence of the state and that was why the chiefs were not merely administrative, but military leaders in their regions as well.
However, the kabaka had royal bodyguards called Abambowa, and these were charged with protecting the kabaka at his palace, on journeys and at functions.

Economic Organisation
Buganda was predominantly agricultural. The existence of fertile soils plus abundant rainfall enabled the Baganda to cultivate a variety of crops. Matooke was their basic food. Other crops grown included maize, sweet potatoes, cassava and beans. They also reared cattle, sheep and goats but on small scale. The growing of food crops was an activity meant for women. This arrangement enabled men to have an opportunity to engage themselves in other activities such as trade and raiding of necessary items from neighbouring societies.

The making of barkcloth in Buganda
The kingdom was also blessed by the presence of skilled artisans in the art of barkcloth making. Far and near, the Baganda were admired for this work. In the initial stages, the kingdom had no blacksmith orkers but at the apex of her growth, Buganda acquired counties such as Buddu and Kooki from Bunyoro which areas were endowed with much minerals. The kabaka also got some skilled men to train his trustees at the palace in iron smelting. Consequently, the trustees took up the art and the iron smelting industry, which became stronger in Buganda and later provided the items of trade such as knives,machetes, spears, among others.

At the beginning of colonialism, Buganda’s economy was characterised by interstate trade. Backcloth was traded in different territories e.g, Busoga, Bunyoro and Teso. With the acquisition of Buddu and Kooki counties, iron products became some important trade items. Buganda also traded with lakeshore people
of Buvuma and Ssese Island for fish. It should be noted that the exchange of these items at this time was through barter system of trade.

Besides, at inter-territorial level by the mid-19th Century, Buganda had got actively involved in the Long Distance Trade. Buganda had established close ties with Arabs and through this, she acquired arms and ammunitions. Other items were cloth, beads, glass ware materials, etc. These were exchanged for ivory
and slaves from the interior. Buganda also had established strong trading centres where she taxed traders in the Long-Distance Trade crossing her territory

War booty, minerals and tributes also formed another important revenue source for the kingdom. After the acquisition of arms and ammunitions, Buganda embarked on organising raids and wars against the neigbours, especially Bunyoro and Busoga. With the raids locally referred to as Entabaalo, Buganda looted cattle, ironworks and beautiful women from their neighbours.

Besides being assets to the kingdom, the war booties were used as rewards to the subjects, chief and commanders of the kabaka. Moreover, the successful war conquests led to the acquisition of Buddu and Kooki, which were important sources of wealth to Buganda. In addition, Buganda could obtain tributes from conquered states such as Busoga and Bukedi, which they paid regularly as a
sign of loyalty to the kabaka.

It should be noted that all the wealth obtained for the kingdom was under the close supervision of the king. With a centralised economy blessed with effective central government, Buganda became a very prosperous kingdom in the interlucastrine region.

The clan was the basic social unit in the organisation of the kingdom. Every Muganda belonged to a particular clan. Clans provided a bond of unity in the kingdom. The clans were led by clan heads. These were the Kabaka’s representatives among his people. Clan heads were also charged with settling
disputes on behalf of the kabaka.

Members of each clan respected one another as close relatives and through intermarriages, it was possible to maintain unity in the kingdom. Some clans had specialised duties in the kingdom. For example, the “Mamba” clan formed the navy force which was led by a commander commonly known as “Gabunga”, Ngeye clan drummed for the Kabaka, the “Mbogo” clan provided messengers for the Kabaka, the “Ngonge” made barkcloth, while Butiko clan entertained the Kabaka. The Kabaka was the head of all clans (Ssabataka

Socially, Buganda was composed of one tribe of people called the Bantu, whose language was Luganda. They also had the same way of dressing and dancing.
This similarity in language and culture promoted unity within the Buganda society. Another source of homogeneity in Buganda was that the kingdom was led by the kabaka, who was both political and religious leader. He presided over most of the ritual functions in the kingdom. The kabaka married from different clans hence creating unity between the royal family and all the clans he married from.

Despite this, Buganda was a class society. There were three classes namely,a b ambejja and abalangira (royal class), the chiefs and the peasants (commoners) also known as the bakopi, and slaves (abaddu).The abalangira and the abambejja were of the royal class, who enjoyed several privileges and other classes like the bakopi were to support this royal class with all the needs.

The second class was made up of clan heads called bataka chiefs. These were clan officers of the state and enjoyed some privileges such as owning land. The third class was made up of peasants, who were the commoners (bakopi).
They were not allowed to own land. They also consisted of slaves and captives from conquered areas (abaddu). It should, however, be noted that classes in Buganda did not create conflicts in the society. This was mainly because of the intermarriages and also because promotion was on the basis of merit. Therefore, there was social mobility for even a peasant or captive could rise to the prominent
oosition to be among the notables the kabaka.

Buganda was also a religious society. The kabaka was the spiritual head an overall mediator between his people and their god, Lubaale This god was consulted through intermediaries, who were usually ancestors. Under Lubaale were minor gods including Nalubaale responsible for womens’ fortunes. Ddungu
was the god of hunters, Musoke of rain, Kibuuka for war, among others. There were taboos of Buganda that helped in maintaining traditional cultures of law and order. The Baganda had royal regalia, which included drums, barkcloth and spears which were highly respected.

Activity 5.2: Buganda Kingdom
a) Using library or ICT, research on the following and answer the questions
below;
(i) Describe the origins of Buganda Kingdom.
(ii)In groups, discuss the factors that led to the growth and expansion of
Buganda Kingdom.
(iii)In groups find out the weaknesses in the organisation of Buganda
Kingdom and present to the class.
(v)Give reasons for the decline of the Buganda Kingdom.

Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom

Bunyoro-Kitara was the biggest and strongest kingdom in the interlacustine region by the beginning of the 13th Century. The kingdom flourished from the 16th to the 19th centuries west of Lake Victoria, in present-day Uganda. Bunyoro as a kingdom was initially bigger than the present day districts of Hoima, Masindi
and Kibaale. The legendary Empire of Bunyoro-Kitara from which the kingdom of Bunyoro emerged is said to have been a very big empire comprising the whole of the present day western Uganda, Rwanda-Burundi, western Kenya and parts of northern Tanzania. This Bunyoro—Kitara Kingdom was founded by the Bachwezi. It is believed to have collapsed at the invasion of the Luo.

The Biito Luo are said to have established the Babiito dynasty over some of the remains of the Bachwezi state. Bunyoro was established by invaders from the n orth. As cattle keepers, the immigrants constituted a priviledged social group that ruled over the Bantu-speaking agriculturalists. For many years, Bunyoro
raided her neighbours, including Buganda, Ankole and Tooro, which led to the expansion of the Kingdom. By the time of the reign of the Omukama Kamurasi, the father of Kabalega, who ascended to the throne in 1868, Bunyoro still had a considerable territory. It included much of nothern Buganda, part of Tooro, and Ankole. It also extended to the north and northeast of the Nile, as well as Lake

Wtoria. The kingdom continued to expand under its kings until about 1800 when it s E rted to lose territory to its neighbour, Buganda. Bunyoro’s last ruler, Kabalega, deposed in 1894 by the British, who favoured Buganda. The kingdom was bsorbed into the British protectorate in 1896.

Social Organisation
Socially, people were organised in strong clans with the royal clan of kings, princes and princesses. The king held executive, judiciary and legislative powers. His word was highly respected and almost equated to the word from god. The king’s subjects ensured their king lacked nothing economically. Clans would bring foodstuffs (ebihotole) in turn and each clan had a specific duty to perform for the King. For example, Abaliisa clan were the shepherds of the king’s cattle (enkorogi), the Abahamba clan were the hunters and bodyguards (abakumirizi) for the King, the Abasiita clan being the artisans and craftsmen, and the Bayaga clan were the chief entertainers of the king.

The Banyoro worshipped a number of gods but the greatest was Ruhanga. Clans had their respective favourable gods and even families had individual gods. Some of these included; Wamara (god of plenty), Mugizi (god of Lake Albert) and Muhigo god of war. Sacrifices were always offered to these gods to appease them.
The Banyoro also had royal regalia, which included drums, spears, animal skins, the throne and the royal crown. These were highly respected symbols of power. They were also united by a similar culture, language and way of dressing.

Economic organ:sattion
Economically, the Kingdom of Bunyoro was the supplier of foodstuffs to other neighbouring kingdoms. The fertile soils of the kingdom enabled people to grow plenty of food for home consumption, and the surplus was sold to the neighbouring communities. People’s economy was thus greatly hinged on agriculture carried out using traditionally made hoes. Barter trade was also common. The people
along Lake Mwitanzige (Albert) known as the Bagungu were fishermen. Some communities were hunters using locally made nets, knives and spears for killingsmall animals, while the big ones were killed using well dug deep pits (Obuhya). People thus exchanged fish or dried meat (omukaro) for food crops.

The coming of the Bachwezi introduced the culture of cattle keeping on a larger scale with their long-horned cattle, which yielded more milk. Salt processing in Kibiro is still going on up to today. The Abanyakibiro made a living through the exchange of this salt for fish. The Banyoro also produced a number of wooden items, hides and skin items, palm and sisal items, iron and stone items, pottery
and mud items, and many others for economic purposes. These were either sold or exchanged for other items that they needed. The Banyoro also engaged in hunting animals for food; elephants for ivory and
rhinos for horns. They also raided their neighbours for slaves and ivory, which also contributed to the economy. The iron working industry was also developed in Bunyoro and they manufactured hoes, spears and pangas. Bunyoro also participated in Long-Distance Trade with the coastal Arabs.

Political Organisation
Politically, the Banyoro had a centralised system of government. At the top of the political leadership was the king (Omukama). His position was hereditary. He was the most important person in the kingdom. He was assisted in administrative matters by the provincial chiefs and a council of notables. The king was the
commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and each provincial chief was the commander of a military detachment stationed in his province. The king was assisted by a council of advisors known as the Bajwara Nkondo (wearers Of crowns made from monkey skins). The king had absolute authority over his subjects. He appointed the county chiefs (Abamasaza) to administer each county. Below them were sub-county chiefs (Abagomborozi) who were sub-county administrators. These received reports from parish chiefs (Abemiruka) and sub-parish chiefs (Abatongole).At the very grassroot were the village chiefs (Bakurub’emigongo). With this hierarchical

arrangement, the king’s messages used to reach the grassroot very fast. Later the office of the prime minister (Mushikiwabo/katiikiro) was established to on
h e ad the civil service of the entire kingdom. All county chiefs reported to him and hein turn reported to the king.
There was a kind of political school in Mwenge. All the chiefs had to pass through it. Each chief had to send his favourite son to the king’s court as a sign of allegiance. Leadership was not confined to men; the Kogire and Nyakauma rulers of Busongora were women. Other persons of political importance in the
kingdom were the Bamuroga (prime minister) and Nyakoba (a physician of the Basuli clan), Kasoira Nyamumara of the Batwaire clan, and a leading Mubiito.

11 Activity 5.3: Bunyoro kingdom
‘a) Using library or ICT, research information on the following questions. in groups, discuss the factors that led to the growth and expansion of Bunyoro Kingdom.
(ii) What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Bunyoro Kingdom?
(iii) Give reasons for the decline of the kingdom.
lb), Share your findings with the rest of the class.

Ankole Kingdom

Ankole, was a traditional Bantu kingdom in Uganda. The kingdom is locate d in south-western Uganda, east of Lake Edward. Ankole, also referred to as Nkore is one of the traditional kingdoms in Uganda. It was ruled by a monarch known as the Mugabe or Omugabe of Ankole. The kingdom was formally abolished in 1967 by the government of former president Apollo Militon Obote, and is still not
officially restored.

Political organisation

The Banyankole had a centralised system of government. At the top of the political ladder was a king called Omugabe. Below him was a prime minister known as Enganzi. Then there were provincial chiefs known as Abakurub’ebyanga. Below them were chiefs, who took charge of local affairs at the parish and sub-parish levels. The kingdom was divided into 16 districts headed by a chief appointed
directly by Omugabe.
The position of the king was hereditary. The king had to belong to the Bahinda royal clan, who claimed to be descendants of Ruhanga (god), son of Njunaki. The Omugabe (king) was an absolute ruler. He claimed all the cattle throughout the kingdom as his own.

Chiefs were ranked not by the land that they owned but by the number of cattle they possessed. Chiefs ruled over pasturelands. Although both chiefs and herdsmen possessed cattle, the ultimate ownership of all cattle was in the hands of the Omugabe. Cows were exchanged by chiefs or herdsmen for wives, but
could not be killed, except for a small number of bulls for sacrifice or food. The Omugabe regularly held court sessions where he resolved disputes involving more than 50 cows, or cases of wives deserting their husbands. The Nganzi was the favorite chief, who decided which disputes would be heard by the Omugabe.

chief regularly held court sessions to resolve minor conflicts. Every year agents of omugabe travelled throughout the kingdom in search of taxes in the form one cow per 50 cows in a homestead. Chiefs had no right to levy taxes on their districts.

Social Organsation
the Banyankole society was divided into a high-ranked pastoral caste and a bower-ranked agricultural caste. A caste-like system of the Bahima over the Bairu existed, The society was a dual pyramid with pastoral and agricultural legs. Withltl the two groups or castes, the clans cut across both the Bairu and the
Bahtma. The two groups recognised a common ancestry. There was a general belief that what made a mwiru (singular of Bairu) was a hoe and what made a Muhtma (singular for Bahima) what he is was cattle. This kind of belief was not very accurate because merely acquiring cows would not immediately transform
one from a Mwiru into a Muhima, nor would the loss of cows transform a Muhima Into a Mwiru. A Muhima who owned few cattle would be called a Murasi. While a Mwiru who owned cattle was called a Mwambari.

The two groups lived together and they depended on each other. The Bairu exchanged cattle products with Bahima and the Bahima equally received agricultural goods from the Bairu. This was because the Bairu needed milk, meat, hides and other cattle products from the Bahima, while the Bahima would also
need agricultural products from the Bairu, as well as local beer.

Economic Organisation

In Ankole, cattle were the most treasured possession in people salves. cattle provided milk, ghee, beef and hides. They were considered valuable and used as a medium of exchange. They were the mode of payment of bride price, and
some special cows were used in religious rituals, as well as cultural and political ceremonies. The long horned Ankole cows were most valued because they were adapted to the climate of the region and resistant to most diseases. A cow was appreciated for the amount of milk it yielded,for its size and stature, its body colour, shape and whiteness of its long horns, as well as its ancestry.

Activity 5.4: Ankole Kingdom
a) Using library or ICT research; find information on the following questions.
(ii) In groups, discuss the factors that led to the growth and expansion of Ankole Kingdom.
What were the strengths and weaknesses of Ankole Kingdom?
Why did it decline?
Write your findings in your notebooks, and hand in to the teacher for
evaluation.

Karagwe Kingdom

Karagwe Kingdom is in northwestern Tanzania between Rwanda and Lake Victoria. Karagwe Kingdom was an influential kingdom in the history of East Africa. It was led by a hereditary king and chiefs said to have descended from the Bacwezi. It enjoyed prosperous trade with merchants from all corners of Africa,
including Arabs towards the end of the 20th Century. The kingdom reached its apex during the 19th Century. The growth occurred during the early part of the 1800s, with King Ndagara, who came to power around 1820, and ruled until 1853, at which time he was replaced by King Rumanika.

Economic Organisation
During the height of the Karagwe Kingdom agriculture played an important role in its local economy. They grew crops such as sorghum, millet and bananas. The karagwe were cattle herders and so cows were a measure of wealth and power. Iron production also played a key part in the economic balances within
the kingdom For example, they made hoes, spears and arrows. The location of Karagwe was in today’s northwestern Tanzania. This location allowed them to participate in regional trade routes that connected Ugandan and Rwandan states, and merchants from the Eastern Coast and the rest of Eastern Africa. They exchanged trade items such as ivory and iron products with Buganda and coastal traders.

Political Organisation
The political orgnisation of Karagwe Kingdom was based on family/clan system centred on a clan leader called Muharambwa. This system was replaced at the advent of the Bachwezi immigrants under Ruhinda, who established a centralised system of administration. After his death, many areas in Karagwe broke away and became independent of Karagwe and reverted to the clan system. The clan leaders were known as Baharambwa, who were in charge of tax collection and tributes as well as religion. The clans were grouped to represent eight chiefdoms. The clan heads had political, judicial and religious powers to
settle all disputes within their territories.
The eight chiefdoms included Kianja, Bukara, Kyamtwara, Kiziba, Ihangiro, Misenyi, Bugabo and Karagwe. Each of these chiefdoms became a nation known as Ihanga. Chiefs would dismiss a clan head if his people appealed.

Social Organisation
The karagwe married people outside their immediate clans. They were patrilineal and maintained divisions of labour based on clan membership. Individual villages, usually centred around an extended family systems, were controlled by royally
appointed governors, some of whom were women. Women were associated With fertility and seen as a threat to the success of iron smelting. Their appointment as governors by the king indicated an attempt by him to assert power over ironproducing centres.
The Muharambwa (clan leader) was supposed to preside over religious functions. Settlement of conflicts was entrusted to the clan leader but the head of the chiefdom, Ihanga, was the final man in everything.
Age sets were encouraged among the Banyambo, and young boys of the same age were called at the chief’s residence where they would be trained in military art. After training, they would be sent home and only recalled in times of military emergency. The few who were outstanding were sent to the king’s court, where they learnt court manners and language.

Activity 5.5: Karagwe Kingdom
Using library or ICT research find information to answer the following questions
b. In groups, discuss the factors that led to the growth and expansion
of Karagwe Kingdom.
c)What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Karagwe Kingdom?
d)Explain the reasons for the decline of the kingdom.
c) Share your findings with the rest of the class member.

DECENTRALISED STATES IN EAST AFRICA
The Nyamwezi Society

Bantu-speaking inhabitants occupied a wide area of the western region of Tanzania. The Wanyamwezi are believed to have migrated during the 16th and 17th centuries from various parts of East and Central Africa to their current homeland in western Tanzania. The first Nyamwezi settlers formed small communities that grew into larger kingdoms ruled by a mtemi, or chief.

political Organisation
The Nyamwezi lived in a number of chiefdoms called Ntemiships. These chiefdoms had a considerable degree of autonomy and existed independent of each other. The chiefdoms were usually small in size, and with scarcely more than 1000 inhabitants. But if the population increased, the chiefdoms would split up to make new ones along clan ties or common historical background.

The Nyamwezi political entities and chiefdoms were headed by chiefs known as Ntemi or Mtemi.They had a decentralised system of administration. They had political, religious and judicial powers in the chiefdoms. They were adored as rainmakers, magicians and judges. The Ntemi was responsible for appointing the army commander and his deputy and the information officer and the tribute collector called Minule.

In administration,the Ntemi were assisted by a council of elders known as Wanyampala. Below the council of elders were various officers, who included army officers, the head of the secret intelligence service, tribute officer and the information officer. The information officer would travel around the chiefdom
announcing the Ntemi’s orders to the subjects.
Where the power influence of the Ntemi from the headquarters was hardly felt, he depended on a group of administrators called Gunguli. These were heads of various settlement areas. In turn, the Gunguli depended on the Wazenga Makaya, the heads of households. Unlike in Buganda or Bunyoro, where the
kings had overall powers over the army, the Ntemi had no such powers. It was the council of elders that had the powers to sanction any war.

The Ntemi would only perform a sacrificial ceremony for the war. The army was later made professional and powerful rugarugas by Mirambo and Nyungu Ya Mawe. Other important chiefs among the Nyamwezi included a ritual officer (Mugawe), army commander, (Mtwale), information officer (Kikoma) and tax
revenue officer (Minule). All these took orders from the Ntemi.

Social Organisation
The Nyamwezi empire did not have a centralised society but consisted of four clans and lineages with each descending from its own ancestor. They believe d in traditional religion and the spirits of the ancestors. Ancestors were seen as u holding the tradition, law, and values of society.

The spirits of the ancestors were believed to be capable o Intervening in the affairs of the living, either to show their pleasure or, more commonly, to show their anger Not honouring one’s ancestors was a sign of disrespect in the Nyamwezi culture and tradition, and was bound to lead to adverse consequences, usually sickness.

The Ntemi chief was highly thought to have power over death and was highly respected by his people. The Ntemi was assisted by priests and councillors to perform ceremonies on behalf of their people.
The Nyamwezi were a polygamous society and polygamy was highly respected and valued. The elders were respected by the youth whom they sought wisdom from because of their experience.

Economic Organisation
The Wanyamwezi were well-known traders in the pre-colonial era and played an important role in developing the region’s trade. They were traders, and by 1800, were involved in trade in copper, wax, ivory, and slaves with the Arabs at the coast. Elephant hunting was a prestigious occupation due to the wealth from ivory trade. They also acquired guns and were often involved in inter-tribal wars,
and conflicts with the Arabs.

They pioneered caravan routes throughout East and Central Africa. As a result,the Nyamwezi trading settlements spread throughout central Tanzania. It is the Nyamwezi who are said to have established the caravan routes to the Coast that were later used by the Swahili and Arab traders and European explorers.
The Nyamwezi states became prosperous through trading. Mirambo was a great military tactician who used force to enhance his country’s trading position. The Nyamwezi were farmers, who mainly grew cereals such as millet and sorghum. The Ntemi mobilised his people to grow enough food. They settled land disputes and guarded against misuse of land.

Using library or ICT research; find information to answer the following
questions.
(a) In groups, discuss the factors that led to the growth and expansion of the Nyamwezi society.
b)What was the strengths and weaknesses of the Nyamwezi ?
c)Give reasons for the decline of the Nyamwezi society.
d)Share your ideas with your classmates.

e Maasai

The Maasai are a Nilotic pastoral ethnic group inhabiting northern, central and southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. They are among the best-known local populations internationally due to their residence near the many game parks of the African great lakes, and their distinctive customs and dresses.
The Maasai were originally a Nilo-Saharan people settled in the area of what is
today Sudan. They then migrated southwards, along with other tribes such as the Tutsi, searching for better grasing and agricultural lands, a quest which eventually took them into central East Africa around 1750 CE. They passed through the highlands of Kenya and Lake Turkana, and finally settling on the Savannah grass plains of what is today southern Kenya and northern Tanzania.

Chapter 5: State Formations In East Africa
The Maasai are pastoralists and are famous for their fearsome reputations as warriors and cattle-rustlers. The Maasai have adopted customs and practices from neighbouring Cushitic-speaking groups, including the age set system Of social organisation, circumcision and vocabulary.

According to oral tradition,the Maasai view themselves as the only pure pastoralists in East Africa. They believe they are superior in all ways to other tribes, especially hunters (Dorobo) and agriculturalists, who had to perform such undignified tasks as tilting the soil. Other oral traditions perpetuate the belief that
the Maasai were born to be cattle herders, and literally that the first male ancestor of the tribe was given a herding stick for this purpose. Further, it was thought that this specialisation should not be compromised by taking up other activities which other people pursue, such as hunting and farming.

Social Organisation
The Maasai were divided into 16 independent groups each with its own territiry, pasture and water supply. They were organised into clans in which people were divided into age-sets. The clans had their own names and cattle-brands. They operated a linear system: each age-set had its own name which was not repeated. Innitiation into an age-set was through circumcision at about 15 or 16 years old, and each age-set was created at 15 years intervals. There were two periods,each of four to six years in length during which young men were circumcised and allocated a set. After this, there was an interval between two and six years.

When the young initiatees entered the grade of junior warriors(ilmurran), they formed the ‘right’ and ‘left’ hand divisions of the grade. Promotion to the next age-set to senior grade of warriors did not occur until several years later,so members of different age-sets occupied the same grade. After 15 years they were promoted to that of a senior elder. This process continued for as long as the age-set had
living members.

Each age-set was headed by the olaiguanani who planned any military attacks by the warriors of his set,and afterwards arranged for the distribution Of any captured women,children and cattle. Court cases were decided by elders, who usually imposed a fine of cattle on the criminal. Murder was treated eparately. If the victim was from a different clan, the murderer had to give 49 heads of cattle to the clan of the victim. The victim’s clansmen could also avenge the murder by killing a member of the murderer’s clan.

Maasai operated a small-scale class system. Blacksmiths, who lived The separately from the rest of the Maasai were considered inferior to them. However, they were very important because they made their spears shields and swords. The blacksmiths could not avenge the murder of their own people by a Maasai, but the latter could kill several of the blacksmiths if they murdered a Maasai.
The Maasai believed in a supreme creator known as Enkai. This was believed to be the source of life and punished bad people. Prayers were offered to Enkai through the Iaibon, who was believed to have magical and religious powers. The laibon prayed for rain,cured sickness and could make charms for the soldiers in order to protect them.

The warrior villages of one subset were abandoned before the initiation of the next subset of warriors. Retirement to elderhood entails a dispersal into smaller and often more remote villages in order to exploit fully the available grazing lands and water for livestock. As elders, the mens’ prime concern was to stablish their families and herds. The transition to elderhood thus entailed a transformation from a young man who had been heavily dependent on his peers to a self-reliant and self-interested veteran. The independence of each stock owner within the elder’s village was popularly seen as the result of the close dependency that was nurtured within the warrior village, just as the image of the patriarch was the result
of the popular image of the selfless warrior.

Political Organisation
Maasai society was organised into male age-groups, whose members, together, passed through initiations to become warriors, and then elders. They had no chiefs, although each section had a liabon, or spiritual leader at its head. Under this system, groups of the same age were initiated (circumcised) into adult life during the same open-initiation period. The age-class thus formed was a permanent grouping, lasting the life of its members. They moved up through a hierarchy of grades, each lasting approximately 15 years, including those of junior warriors, senior warriors, and junior elders, until they became senior elders authorised to make decisions for the tribe.

Social control among the Maasai rested ultimately on the general belief in the power of elders to bless or to curse. This was linked to their moral superiority in all spheres. The power of firestick patrons over warriors was like of fathers over their children, and they were believed to have power to curse. Maasai individually belonged to a family, clan, and district group. Representatives Of these groups formed councils of male elders. Seniority in age was an important criterion for the Maasai elite. These met regularly to discuss and decide matters

important to the Maasai as a whole. They also established the rights and mutual obligations of each of these three levels of society. Elite groups typically ended up controlling the best grazing land and the vital watering places.

Economic organisation
The lifestyle of the Maasai was oriented towards their herds of cattle. Traditionally the Maasai measure of a man’s wealth was in terms of cattle and children rather than money. Cattle were the traditional staple of Maasai diet, which used to consist of milk,blood,meat,skins and hides. Cattle were also part of the Maasai
economy, social structure, religion, and relationships. Herd size was always a way to distinguish the rich from the poor.
Sheep and donkeys were also kept. However, other foods were needed such as vegetables and grains, which were obtained from Bantu people, especially the Kikuyu in exchange for skins, beads,cowrie shells, which Maasai caravans carried. Markets were established where the items of trade were exchanged.
They also used Okiek honey for making honey-wine. They did not eat fish for there was ataboo against it.

Traditionally, the Maasai used cattle for the payment of bride price, settling disputes, and trade. Of equal importance, cattle were slaughtered in religious transitional ceremonies for boys. As boys moved up to the status of men, a cow was slaughtered as an offering, marking their completion into the next chapter
of their lives. For the Maasai, cattle were always an integral part of culture andsurvival.
Activity 5.7: The Masai society
Using library or ICT research, find information to answer the following questions:
(a) In groups, discuss the factors that led to the growth and expansion of the
Maasai.
(b) What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Maasai?
(c) Give reasons for the decline of Maasai society.
d) Share your findings with the rest of the calss members.

The Kikuyu
Kikuyu, also called Gikuyu or Agikuyu, are the Bantu-speaking people who live in the highland area of south-central Kenya near Mount Kenya. The Kikuyu moved into their modern region from the northeast between the 17th and 19th Century. The Gikuyu myth of origin, like other myths, relates to the garden of Eden scenario

God comes into the picture. According to this myth, the first man, Guyu, where walked with God, Ngai.

The scene starts at the top of “The Mountain of God”, Kiri Nyaga, now known as Mt. Kenya. This is where God showed the first Gikuyu man the land below and instructed him to go to a specific spot to the south of the mountain where there was a grove of fig trees, Mikuyu. Gikuyu descended the mountain and on arrival at the place, he found a woman. The woman was called mumbi who became his wife. He was also told that he could make contact with Ngai at any time by praying to him while facing Mt. Kenya, or by sacrificing a goat under the Mukuyu or another type of fig tree, the Mugumo.

The name Gikuyu means a huge fig tree — Mukuyu, an The roots of the Mukuyu entered into the Great Mother Earth, each nourishing the other and connecting with God. Man and the Goddess of creation came together and as the milk essence from the Mukuyu entered earth, Gikuyu and Mumbi brought forth the nine daughters who became the mothers of the nine Gikuyu clans.

Political Organisation
Kikuyu were organised into age sets that served as the principal political institutions. Groups of boys were initiated each year and ultimately grouped into generation sets that traditionally ruled for 20 to 30 years. Political authority traditionally, was vested in a council of elders representing a particular age class
during its occupancy of the ruling grade. • The Kikuyu believed in an omnipotent creator called Ngai, who manifested himself through the sun, moon, rainbow, thunder and lightning.

The Kikuyu had a decentralised system of administration. Their political system was based on clans, each handling its own affairs. They had an army composed of junior and senior warriors. The commander of the army represented them on the council of elders called Kiama. The junior warriors were supposed to clear gardens for planting, defend the village against invaders and construct houses and fences.
Families sharing the same terrace made up a territorial unit called Mbari. Each mbari was under a council of elders headed by Muramiti. The position of muramiti was not hereditary, but was entrusted with any experienced elder. He also performed judicial functions.

Families sharing the same terrace made up a territorial unit called Mbari. Each mbari was under a council of elders headed by Muramiti. The position of muramiti was not hereditary, but was entrusted with any experienced elder. He also performed judicial functions.

Economic organisation
Agriculture was the main activity among the Kikuyu, and they mainly grew cereals like sorghum, maize and peas. Land was highly respected by Kikuyu. A man with no land was not allowed to marry because he could not feed his family without it. Fishing and rearing of fowls like chicken was a taboo. Their social laws
did not permit the consumption of fish and fowls. However, they reared cattle, goats, sheep and kept bees. The Kikuyu traded with their neighbours including the Maasai, Embu, Pokomo and Kamba for products such as milk and butter.With the development of Long Distance Trade, the Kikuyu supplied ivory, slaves, beewax and skins to the Coastal Arabs. They also carried out ironworking and made implements like hoes for agriculture and spears for hunting.

Acävity 5.8: Kikuyu society
Using library or ICT research, find infomation to answer the following
questions.
(a) In groups, discuss the factors that led to the growth and expansion of
the Kikuyu.
)What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Kikuyu society?
c)Give reasons for the decline of the Kikuyu society.
d)After the research, share your findings with the rest of the classmates.

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